Philosophy of Government: Legitimacy, Justice, and Political Obligation

Grade 12 · Social Studies · Study Guide

An exploration of major political philosophy traditions and their arguments about the foundations, purposes, and limits of governmental authority.

The philosophy of government asks foundational questions: Why should citizens obey the state? What justifies political authority? What constitutes a just society? Answers vary dramatically across traditions.

Social contract theorists argue that government derives legitimacy from the consent of the governed. Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651) argued that humans in the 'state of nature' face constant war, so they rationally surrender rights to an absolute sovereign for security. John Locke (Second Treatise, 1689) countered that natural rights to life, liberty, and property precede government; people consent to a limited government to protect these rights, retaining the right to revolution if it fails. Jean-Jacques Rousseau introduced the 'general will' — collective self-governance reflecting the common good — as the basis of legitimate authority.

John Rawls (A Theory of Justice, 1971) developed a liberal theory of justice, arguing that just principles are those rational people would choose behind a 'veil of ignorance' — not knowing their place in society. This produces two principles: equal basic liberties, and inequality only permitted if it benefits the least advantaged (the difference principle). Robert Nozick responded with libertarianism, defending minimal government and individual property rights against redistributive taxation.

Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill) judges institutions by whether they maximize overall happiness. Republicanism emphasizes civic virtue and active participation. Communitarianism (MacIntyre, Sandel) critiques liberal individualism, arguing identity and values are embedded in communities. Each tradition continues to shape contemporary debates about democracy, rights, and justice.

Key terms

Social Contract: A real or hypothetical agreement among individuals or between individuals and the state, establishing the terms of political authority and citizens' obligations.
Natural Rights: Rights held to exist independently of government, derived from nature or reason; Locke identified these as life, liberty, and property.
Veil of Ignorance: Rawls's thought experiment in which rational individuals choosing principles of justice do not know their position in society, ensuring impartiality.
Utilitarianism: An ethical and political theory holding that the right action or policy is the one that produces the greatest good (happiness/utility) for the greatest number of people.
Libertarianism: A political philosophy emphasizing individual liberty, minimal government intervention, and strong property rights; associated with thinkers like Nozick and Hayek.
Civic Republicanism: A political tradition emphasizing non-domination (freedom from arbitrary power), civic virtue, and active participation in self-governance as essential to true freedom.

Flashcards

State of Nature: A hypothetical condition without government or civil society, used by social contract theorists to justify the necessity of political authority; described differently by Hobbes (brutal) and Locke (inconvenient) and Rousseau (innocent).
General Will (Rousseau): Rousseau's concept of the collective interest of a community as a whole, distinct from the sum of individual interests; the basis of legitimate democratic self-governance.
Consent of the Governed: The liberal principle that legitimate government authority derives from the agreement of the people it governs, foundational to both Lockean theory and democratic governance.
Separation of Powers: Montesquieu's doctrine that liberty is best protected by dividing government power among separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches with checks and balances.
Political Obligation: The moral duty (if any) of citizens to obey the laws of their state; theories include consent, fairness, natural duty, and associative obligations.
Communitarianism: A political philosophy critiquing liberal individualism and arguing that individual identity and values are fundamentally shaped by community membership, culture, and history.
Original Position: Rawls's hypothetical situation in which people choose principles of justice without knowing their place in society (behind the 'veil of ignorance'), ensuring fair and impartial choices.
Tyranny: The cruel, unreasonable, or arbitrary use of power or control by a ruler or government; in political philosophy, rule without legitimate authority or in violation of natural rights.

Questions

Which philosopher argued that the state of nature was a condition of 'war of all against all' requiring an absolute sovereign (the 'Leviathan') to maintain peace?
1. John Locke
2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
3. Thomas Hobbes
4. John Rawls
Show answer
Answer: Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan (1651), argued that without government, life would be 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.' His solution was an absolute sovereign (Leviathan) to whom citizens surrender rights in exchange for protection.
John Locke believed that citizens had the right to overthrow a government that violated their natural rights to life, liberty, and property.
Show answer
Answer: True
Locke argued in his Second Treatise that government is created to protect natural rights. When a government systematically violates those rights, it dissolves the social contract and citizens retain the right to revolution — an idea that heavily influenced the American Declaration of Independence.
Rawls's 'difference principle' holds that social and economic inequalities are just only if they:
1. Are the result of free market competition
2. Reflect the natural talents of individuals
3. Benefit the least advantaged members of society
4. Are approved by a democratic majority
Show answer
Answer: Benefit the least advantaged members of society
Rawls's difference principle (the second part of his second principle of justice) permits inequality only when it works to the benefit of the least well-off members of society. This provides a moral foundation for progressive social policies.
The political philosophy that opposes government redistribution of wealth and emphasizes maximal individual liberty and self-ownership is called __________.
Show answer
Answer: libertarianism
Libertarianism holds that individuals own themselves and the fruits of their labor. Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974) argued that redistributive taxation violates property rights and that only a minimal 'night-watchman' state is justified.
Which of the following statements best characterizes utilitarian political philosophy?
1. Individuals have inviolable rights that cannot be sacrificed for social benefit
2. Justice requires equal distribution of all resources in society
3. Government policies should be judged by whether they maximize aggregate welfare
4. Political authority derives from divine will or natural hierarchy
Show answer
Answer: Government policies should be judged by whether they maximize aggregate welfare
Utilitarianism judges policies by their consequences for overall welfare (utility). Jeremy Bentham's 'felicific calculus' and John Stuart Mill's refinements both emphasize maximizing net happiness. A key critique is that it can justify harming minorities for majority benefit.

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