Latin American History

Grade 7 · Social Studies · Study Guide

An overview of Latin American history from the Spanish and Portuguese conquest through independence movements of the early 19th century.

Latin America's modern history begins with the arrival of Spanish and Portuguese colonizers in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Spain conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico (1519–1521) under Hernán Cortés and the Inca Empire in South America (1532–1572) under Francisco Pizarro. Portugal colonized Brazil. The conquest brought European diseases that devastated Indigenous populations and established a brutal colonial system built on the labor of enslaved Africans and Indigenous peoples.

The colonial social structure, called the casta system, placed Spanish-born Europeans (peninsulares) at the top, followed by American-born Europeans (criollos), then mixed-race people (mestizos and mulatos), and finally Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans at the bottom.

In the early 19th century, inspired by the American and French Revolutions and Enlightenment ideas, Latin American colonies began fighting for independence. Simón Bolívar, called 'The Liberator,' led revolutions that freed present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from Spanish rule. José de San Martín liberated Argentina and Chile. In Mexico, Miguel Hidalgo's 1810 'Grito de Dolores' (Cry of Dolores) sparked the independence movement. Brazil gained independence from Portugal in 1822 peacefully, when Prince Pedro I declared independence.

After independence, most Latin American nations struggled with instability, economic inequality, and powerful landowners (caudillos) who dominated politics.

Key terms

casta system
The colonial racial hierarchy in Spanish America that ranked people by race and birth origin, with peninsulares at the top.
Simón Bolívar
Venezuelan military and political leader known as 'The Liberator' who freed much of South America from Spanish colonial rule.
criollo
A person born in the Americas to Spanish parents; criollos led many independence movements due to resentment of peninsulares.
Grito de Dolores
The call to arms made by Miguel Hidalgo on September 16, 1810, which began the Mexican War of Independence.
peninsulares
Spanish-born colonists living in the Americas who held the highest political and social positions in the colonial system.
caudillo
A powerful military or political strongman who dominated Latin American politics after independence.

Flashcards

conquistador
Spanish soldier-explorer who conquered the Americas in the 16th century, overthrowing Indigenous empires like the Aztec and Inca.
Hernán Cortés
Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico between 1519 and 1521.
Francisco Pizarro
Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru between 1532 and 1572.
casta system
Spanish colonial racial hierarchy placing peninsulares at the top, followed by criollos, mestizos, and Indigenous/African peoples.
peninsulares
Spanish-born colonists in the Americas who held the top positions; their privileges angered criollos.
criollo
Person of Spanish descent born in the Americas; led independence movements due to resentment of peninsulares' advantages.
Simón Bolívar
'The Liberator'; Venezuelan leader who freed Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from Spanish rule.
José de San Martín
Argentine general who helped liberate Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish rule.

Questions

  1. Which Spanish conquistador conquered the Aztec Empire in present-day Mexico?

    1. Francisco Pizarro
    2. Hernán Cortés
    3. Vasco Núñez de Balboa
    4. Juan Ponce de León
    Show answer

    Answer: Hernán Cortés

    Hernán Cortés led the conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521) with a small Spanish force aided by Indigenous allies who opposed Aztec rule.

  2. Simón Bolívar is known as 'The Liberator' for leading independence movements across much of South America.

    Show answer

    Answer: True

    Bolívar led military campaigns across Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, earning the title 'El Libertador.'

  3. The colonial social hierarchy in Spanish America that ranked people by race and birth was called the ________ system.

    Show answer

    Answer: casta

    The casta system organized colonial society by racial categories, determining legal rights, opportunities, and social status.

  4. Which of the following BEST describes why criollos led Latin American independence movements?

    1. Criollos were the poorest group in colonial society
    2. Criollos resented being excluded from top government positions held by peninsulares
    3. Criollos had been enslaved by Spanish rulers
    4. Criollos wanted to maintain the colonial system
    Show answer

    Answer: Criollos resented being excluded from top government positions held by peninsulares

    Criollos were educated and wealthy but barred from the highest colonial offices, which were reserved for peninsulares; this resentment drove them to lead independence movements.

  5. Brazil gained independence from Spain through a series of violent military battles in the early 1800s.

    Show answer

    Answer: False

    Brazil gained independence from Portugal in 1822 relatively peacefully when Prince Pedro I, son of the Portuguese king, declared independence and became Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.

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